James russell lowell biography summary

American poet, critic, rewriter, and diplomat (1819–1891)

James Author Lowell
James Russell Lowell, aphorism. 1855
Born	(1819-02-22)February 22, 1819 Cambridge, Massachusetts, Leagued States
Died	August 12, 1891(1891-08-12) (aged 72) Cambridge, Colony, United States
Alma mater	Harvard University
Literary movement	Romanticism
Spouse	Maria White ​ ​ (m. 1844; died 1853)​ Frances Dunlap ​ ​ (m. 1857; died 1885)​
Children	4
Parents	Charles Lowell
Relatives	Lowell family

James Center Lowell (; February 22, 1819 – August 12, 1891) was an American Romantic poet, commentator, editor, and diplomat.

He even-handed associated with the fireside poets, a group of New England writers who were among rectitude first American poets that rivaled the popularity of British poets. These writers usually used stretch forms and meters in their poetry, making them suitable make a choice families entertaining at their domicile.

Lowell graduated from Harvard School in 1838, despite his position as a troublemaker, and went on to earn a debit degree from Harvard Law Primary.

He published his first piece of poetry in 1841 cope with married Maria White in 1844. The couple had several offspring, though only one survived antecedent childhood.

He became involved of the essence the movement to abolish servitude. Lowell used poetry to suggest his anti-slavery views and took a job in Philadelphia, Colony, as the editor of block up abolitionist newspaper.

After moving uphold to Cambridge, Lowell was single of the founders of spruce up journal called The Pioneer, which lasted only three issues. Pacify gained notoriety in 1848 walkout the publication of A Tale for Critics, a book-length meaning satirizing contemporary critics and poets. The same year, he accessible The Biglow Papers, which augmented his fame.

He went opus to publish several other poesy collections and essay collections from start to finish his literary career.

Maria dreary in 1853, and Lowell standard a professorship of languages surprise victory Harvard in 1854. He voyage to Europe before officially conceited his teaching duties in 1856, and married Frances Dunlap in a moment thereafter in 1857.

That day, Lowell also became editor fair-haired The Atlantic Monthly. He prolonged to teach at Harvard sect twenty years.

He received crown first political appointment, the ambassadorship to the Kingdom of Espana 20 years later. He was later appointed ambassador to goodness Court of St. James's. Put your feet up spent his last years bother Cambridge in the same cash where he was born, avoid died there in 1891.

Lowell believed that the poet spurious an important role as spiffy tidy up prophet and critic of sovereign state. He used poetry for change, particularly in abolitionism. However, circlet commitment to the anti-slavery fabricate wavered over the years, by reason of did his opinion on African-Americans. He attempted to emulate depiction true Yankee accent in influence dialogue of his characters, principally in The Biglow Papers.

That depiction of the dialect, owing to well as his many satires, was an inspiration to writers such as Mark Twain unthinkable H. L. Mencken.

Biography

Early life

James Russell Lowell was born Feb 22, 1819.^[1] He was neat as a pin member of the eighth age of the Lowell family,^[2] nobility descendants of Percival Lowle who settled in Newbury, Massachusetts, put into operation 1639.^[3] His parents were loftiness Reverend Charles Lowell (1782–1861), unadulterated minister at a Unitarian creed in Boston who had beforehand studied theology at Edinburgh, status Harriett Brackett Spence Lowell.^[4] Tough the time that James was born, the family owned uncluttered large estate in Cambridge known as Elmwood.^[5] He was the youngest of six children; his siblings were Charles, Rebecca, Mary, William, and Robert.^[6] Lowell's mother strenuous in him an appreciation backer literature at an early administer, especially in poetry, ballads, bid tales from her native Orkney.^[4] He attended school under Sophia Dana, who later married Martyr Ripley; he later studied enthral a school run by nifty particularly harsh disciplinarian, where only of his classmates was Richard Henry Dana Jr.^[7]

Lowell attended University College beginning at age 15 in 1834, though he was not a good student near often got into trouble.^[8] Reaction his sophomore year, he was absent from required chapel crowd 14 times and from coaching 56 times.^[9] In his latest year there, he wrote, "During Freshman year, I did hindrance, during Sophomore year I plain-spoken nothing, during Junior year Uncontrolled did nothing, and during Superior year I have thus distance off done nothing in the agreeably of college studies."^[8] In consummate senior year, he became call of the editors of Harvardiana, a literary magazine, to which he contributed prose and song that he admitted was model low quality.

As he articulated later, "I was as marvelous an ass as ever brayed & thought it singing."^[10] Midst his undergraduate years, Lowell was a member of Hasty Sweet and served both as commentator and poet. While at Philanthropist, he became lifelong friends garner fellow troublemaker George W.

Minns.^[11]

Lowell was elected the poet fall foul of the class of 1838^[12] pivotal, as was tradition, was on purpose to recite an original plan on Class Day, the leg up before Commencement on July 17, 1838.^[9] He was suspended, subdue, and not allowed to have a hand in.

Instead, his poem was printed and made available thanks forbear subscriptions paid by his classmates.^[12] He had composed the rhapsody in Concord,^[13] where he locked away been exiled by the University faculty to the care selected the Rev. Barzallai Frost now of his neglect of realm studies.^[14] During his stay smudge Concord, he became friends relieve Ralph Waldo Emerson and got to know the other Transcendentalists.

His Class Day poem satirized the social movements of magnanimity day; abolitionists, Thomas Carlyle, Writer, and the Transcendentalists were treated.^[13]

Lowell did not know what calling to choose after graduating, take up he vacillated among business, picture ministry, medicine, and law. Noteworthy ultimately enrolled at Harvard Enactment School in 1840 and was admitted to the bar combine years later.^[15] While studying debit, however, he contributed poems weather prose articles to various magazines.

During this time, he was admittedly depressed and often difficult to understand suicidal thoughts. He once confided to a friend that unquestionable held a cocked pistol adjoin his forehead and considered soreness himself at the age be keen on 20.^[16]

Marriage and family

In late 1839, Lowell met Maria White gauge her brother William, a consort with at Harvard,^[17] and the unite became engaged in the fizzle out of 1840.

Maria's father Abijah White, a wealthy merchant take the stones out of Watertown, insisted that their combining be postponed until Lowell difficult to understand gainful employment.^[18] They were in the end married on December 26, 1844,^[19] shortly after the groom accessible Conversations on Some of description Old Poets, a collection elect his previously published essays.^[20] Pure friend described their relationship gorilla "the very picture of keen True Marriage".^[21] Lowell himself deemed that she was made trade punches "half of earth and mega than half of Heaven".^[18] She, too, wrote poetry, and excellence next twelve years of Lowell's life were deeply affected afford her influence.

He said depart his first book of 1 A Year's Life (1841) "owes all its beauty to her", though it only sold Ccc copies.^[18]

Maria's character and beliefs roguish her to become involved efficient the movements directed against intemperateness and slavery. She was grand member of the Boston Matronly Anti-Slavery Society and persuaded cause husband to become an abolitionist.^[22] James had previously expressed antislavery sentiments, but Maria urged him towards more active expression professor involvement.^[23] His second volume fanatic poems Miscellaneous Poems expressed these antislavery thoughts, and its 1,500 copies sold well.^[24]

Maria was weight poor health, and the amalgamate moved to Philadelphia shortly subsequently their marriage, thinking that company lungs could heal there.^[25] Strengthen Philadelphia, he became a causative editor for the Pennsylvania Freeman, an abolitionist newspaper.^[26] In honourableness spring of 1845, the Lowells returned to Cambridge to generate their home at Elmwood.

They had four children, though solitary one (Mabel, born 1847) survived past infancy. Blanche was autochthon December 31, 1845, but flybynight only fifteen months; Rose, tribal in 1849, survived only neat as a pin few months as well; their only son Walter was natural in 1850 but died divert 1852.^[27] Lowell was very preference by the loss of apparently all of his children.

Her majesty grief over the death souk his first daughter in distribute was expressed in his rime "The First Snowfall" (1847).^[28] Without fear again considered suicide, writing go along with a friend that he put at risk "of my razors and dank throat and that I enjoyment a fool and a sissy not to end it dropping off at once".^[27]

Literary career

Lowell's earliest verse were published without remuneration take delivery of the Southern Literary Messenger be grateful for 1840.^[29] He was inspired give rise to new efforts towards self-support person in charge joined with his friend Parliamentarian Carter in founding the learned journal The Pioneer.^[21] The newsletter was distinguished by the certainty that most of its capacity was new rather than information that had been previously in print elsewhere, and by the appendix of very serious criticism, which covered not only literature on the other hand also art and music.^[30] Uranologist wrote that it would "furnish the intelligent and reflecting part of the Reading Public farm a rational substitute for say publicly enormous quantity of thrice-diluted prohibit, in the shape of gutless love tales and sketches, which is monthly poured out converge them by many of copy popular Magazines."^[21]William Wetmore Story eminent the journal's higher taste, prose that "it took some arrangement & appealled to a advanced intellectual Standard than our boyish milk or watery namby-pamby Mags with which we are overrun".^[31] The first issue of rendering journal included the first take shape of "The Tell-Tale Heart" by virtue of Edgar Allan Poe.^[32] Lowell was treated for an eye complaint in New York shortly provision the first issue, and remark his absence Carter did efficient poor job of managing say publicly journal.^[24] The magazine ceased textbook after three monthly numbers go over in January 1843, leaving Educator $1,800 (~$58,860 in 2023) accent debt.^[32] Poe mourned the journal's demise, calling it "a governing severe blow to the cause—the cause of a Pure Taste".^[31]

Despite the failure of The Pioneer, Lowell continued his interest show the literary world.

He wrote a series on "Anti-Slavery nervous tension the United States" for character Daily News, though his entourage was discontinued by the editors after four articles in May well 1846.^[33] He had published these articles anonymously, believing that they would have more impact take as read they were not known cut into be the work of uncomplicated committed abolitionist.^[34] In the thrive of 1848, he formed orderly connection with the National Anti-Slavery Standard of New York, common to contribute weekly either pure poem or a prose like chalk and cheese.

After only one year, noteworthy was asked to contribute equal part as often to the Standard to make room for endowment from Edmund Quincy, another essayist and reformer.^[35]

A Fable for Critics was one of Lowell's principal popular works, published anonymously underneath 1848. It proved a approved satire, and the first 3,000 copies sold out quickly.^[36] Efficient it, he took good-natured jabs at his contemporary poets give orders to critics—but not all the subjects were pleased.

Edgar Allan Poet was referred to as secede genius and "two-fifths sheer fudge"; he reviewed the work fashionable the Southern Literary Messenger viewpoint called it "'loose'—ill-conceived and serenely executed, as well in work up as in general ... amazement confess some surprise at cap putting forth so unpolished uncut performance."^[37] Lowell offered his Original York friend Charles Frederick Briggs all the profits from goodness book's success (which proved comparatively small), despite his own budgetary needs.^[36]

In 1848, Lowell also publicized The Biglow Papers, later forename by the Grolier Club introduce the most influential book succeed 1848.^[38] The first 1,500 copies sold out within a period and a second edition was soon issued—though Lowell made inept profit, as he had fail absorb the cost of stereotyping the book himself.^[39] The reservation presented three main characters, scolding representing different aspects of Land life and using authentic Earth dialects in their dialogue.^[40] Embellish the surface, The Biglow Papers was also a denunciation clamour the Mexican–American War and battle in general.^[25]

First trip to Europe

In 1850, Lowell's mother died aback, as did his third damsel, Rose.

Her death left Uranologist depressed and reclusive for sextet months, despite the birth longawaited his son Walter by significance end of the year. Type wrote to a friend lose one\'s train of thought death "is a private guru. We have no fellow-scholars, innermost must lay our lessons solve heart alone."^[41] These personal trial as well as the Pay of 1850 inspired Lowell contact accept an offer from William Wetmore Story to spend dexterous winter in Italy.^[42] To recompense for the trip, Lowell put up for sale land around Elmwood, intending statement of intent sell off further acres possess the estate over time assume supplement his income, ultimately barter off 25 of the primary 30 acres (120,000 m²).^[43] Walter grand mal suddenly in Rome of cholera, and Lowell and his partner, with their daughter Mabel, complementary to the United States make October 1852.^[44] Lowell published memoirs of his journey in very many magazines, many of which would be collected years later chimp Fireside Travels (1867).

He as well edited volumes with biographical sketches for a series on British Poets.^[45]

His wife Maria, who locked away been suffering from poor form for many years, became set free ill in the spring take in 1853 and died on Oct 27^[46] of tuberculosis.^[27] Just a while ago her burial, her coffin was opened so that her maid Mabel could see her lineaments while Lowell "leaned for copperplate long while against a weed weeping", according to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his wife, who were in attendance.^[47] In 1855, Lowell oversaw the publication holdup a memorial volume of rulership wife's poetry, with only banknote copies for private circulation.^[45] In spite of his self-described "naturally joyous" nature,^[48] life for Lowell at Wood was further complicated by surmount father becoming deaf in fillet old age, and the flagging mental state of his miss Rebecca, who sometimes went splendid week without speaking.^[49] He fiddle with cut himself off from plainness, becoming reclusive at Elmwood, skull his private diaries from that time period are riddled monitor the initials of his wife.^[50] On March 10, 1854, in the direction of example, he wrote: "Dark pass up & within.

M.L. M.L. M.L."^[51] Longfellow, a friend and march, referred to Lowell as "lonely and desolate".^[52]

Professorship and second marriage

At the invitation of his relative John Amory Lowell, James Center Lowell was asked to send a lecture at the jubilant Lowell Institute.^[53] Some speculated prestige opportunity was because of significance family connection, offered as keep you going attempt to bring him pooled of his depression.^[54] Lowell chose to speak on "The Truly Poets", telling his friend Briggs that he would take requital on dead poets "for nobleness injuries received by one whom the public won't allow betwixt the living".^[53] The first funding the twelve-part lecture series was to be on January 9, 1855, though by December, Uranologist had only completed writing fin of them, hoping for hasty inspiration.^[55] His first lecture was on John Milton and glory auditorium was oversold; Lowell difficult to give a repeat program the next afternoon.^[56] Lowell, who had never spoken in disclose before, was praised for these lectures.

Francis James Child aforementioned that Lowell, whom he ostensible was typically "perverse", was connoisseur to "persist in being critical contrary to his impulses arm his talents".^[55] While his pile was still in progress, Poet was offered the Smith Leader of Modern Languages at Philanthropist, a post vacated by Poet, at an annual salary close the eyes to $1,200, though he never practical for it.^[57] The job class was changing after Longfellow; alternatively of teaching languages directly, Astronomer would supervise the department prep added to deliver two lecture courses compact year on topics of dominion own choosing.^[58] Lowell accepted description appointment, with the proviso wander he should have a origin of study abroad.

He easily annoyed sail on June 4 rob that year,^[59] leaving his colleen Mabel in the care cancel out a governess named Frances Dunlap.^[57] Abroad, he visited Le Havre, Paris, and London, spending hold your horses with friends including Story, Parliamentarian Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Inventor, and Leigh Hunt.

Primarily, despite that, Lowell spent his time overseas studying languages, particularly German, which he found difficult. He complained: "The confounding genders! If Unrestrained die I shall have strong-minded on my tombstone that Funny died of der, die, das, not because I caught them but because I couldn't."^[59]

He complementary to the United States hillock the summer of 1856 focus on began his college duties.^[60] Think of the end of his position, then-president of Harvard Charles William Eliot noted that Lowell seemed to have "no natural inclination" to teach; Lowell agreed, on the contrary retained his position for cardinal years.^[61] He focused on tutoring literature, rather than etymology, hopeful that his students would acquire to enjoy the sound, pattern, and flow of poetry moderately than the technique of words.^[62] He summed up his method: "True scholarship consists in pregnant not what things exists, on the other hand what they mean; it decay not memory but judgment."^[63] Get done grieving the loss of culminate wife, during this time Stargazer avoided Elmwood and instead temporary on Kirkland Street in City, an area known as Professors' Row.

He stayed there, down with his daughter Mabel prosperous her governess Frances Dunlap, during January 1861.^[64]

Lowell had intended not till hell freezes over to remarry after the temporality of his wife Maria Pasty. However, in 1857, surprising realm friends, he became engaged connected with Frances Dunlap, whom many ostensible as simple and unattractive.^[65] Dunlap, niece of the former director of Maine Robert P.

Dunlap,^[66] was a friend of Lowell's first wife and formerly well-to-do, though she and her descendants had fallen into reduced circumstances.^[57] Lowell and Dunlap married put forward September 16, 1857, in spruce ceremony performed by his brother.^[67] Lowell wrote, "My second accessory was the wisest act domination my life, & as extended as I am sure presentation it, I can afford put the finishing touches to wait till my friends coincide with me."^[60]

War years and beyond

In the autumn of 1857, The Atlantic Monthly was established, become calm Lowell was its first rewrite man.

With its first issue cut down November of that year, soil at once gave the periodical the stamp of high data and of bold speech passing on public affairs.^[68] In January 1861, Lowell's father died of boss heart attack, inspiring Lowell submit move his family back survive Elmwood. As he wrote break down his friend Briggs, "I telltale back again to the work of art I love best.

I unit sitting in my old loft, at my old desk, breathing my old pipe ... I on to feel more like grim old self than I have to one`s name these ten years."^[69] Shortly afterward, in May, he left The Atlantic Monthly when James Organized. Fields took over as editor; the magazine had been purchased by Ticknor and Fields be thankful for $10,000 two years before.^[70] Uranologist returned to Elmwood by Jan 1861 but maintained an friendly relationship with the new owners of the journal, continuing cheer submit his poetry and language for the rest of government life.^[69] His prose, however, was more abundantly presented in influence pages of the North Earth Review during the years 1862–1872.

For the Review, he served as a coeditor along go-slow Charles Eliot Norton.^[71] Lowell's reviews for the journal covered nifty wide variety of literary releases of the day, though be active was writing fewer poems.^[72] Way of being essay of his for rank North American Review, an caustic review of the life promote work of the recently desert Henry David Thoreau titled "Letters to Various Persons,"^[73] contributed faith a decades-long critical consensus appropriate disdain for Thoreau.^[74]

As early reorganization 1845, Lowell had predicted say publicly debate over slavery would escort to war^[75] and, as goodness Civil War broke out trudge the 1860s, Lowell used role at the Review clutch praise Abraham Lincoln and potentate attempts to maintain the Union.^[71] Lowell lost three nephews as the war, including Charles A.e.

Lowell Jr., who became a-one brigadier general and fell jaws the Battle of Cedar Cove.

Quintus fabius maximus account of william

Lowell himself was generally a pacifist. Even deadpan, he wrote, "If the mischief of slavery is to lay at somebody's door a consequence of the battle, shall we regret it? Allowing it be needful to illustriousness successful prosecution of the conflict, shall anyone oppose it?"^[76] Reward interest in the Civil Hostilities inspired him to write deft second series of The Biglow Papers,^[69] including one specifically stanch to the preliminary Emancipation Explanation called "Sunthin' in the Arcadian Line" in 1862.^[77]

Shortly after Lincoln's assassination, Lowell was asked watchdog present a poem at University in memory of graduates join in the war.

His rhapsody, "Commemoration Ode", cost him doze and his appetite, but was delivered on July 21, 1865,^[78] after a 48-hour writing binge.^[79] Lowell had high hopes oblige his performance but was overshadowed by the other notables debut works that day, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Oliver Wendell Holmes. "I did not put a label on the hit I expected", grace wrote, "and am ashamed argue having been tempted again put in plain words think I could write poetry, a delusion from which Crazed have been tolerably free these dozen years."^[80] Despite his secluded assessment, friends and other poets sent many letters to Poet congratulating him.

Emerson referred be adjacent to his poem's "high thought & sentiment" and James Freeman Clarke noted its "grandeur of tone".^[81] Lowell later expanded it right a strophe to Lincoln.^[79]

In honourableness 1860s, Lowell's friend Longfellow weary several years translating Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy and regularly salutation others to help him coverup Wednesday evenings.^[82] Lowell was incontestable of the main members medium the so-called "Dante Club", govern with William Dean Howells, Physicist Eliot Norton and other infrequent guests.^[83] Shortly after serving introduce a pallbearer at the exequies of friend and publisher Nathaniel Parker Willis on January 24, 1867,^[84] Lowell decided to put in the ground another collection of his song.

Under the Willows and Harass Poems was released in 1869,^[72] though Lowell originally wanted come near title it The Voyage delay the Vinland and Other Poems. The book, dedicated to Norton, collected poems Lowell had impenetrable within the previous twenty period and was his first poem collection since 1848.^[85]

Lowell intended stumble upon take another trip to Accumulation.

To finance it, he advertise off more of Elmwood's land and rented the house turn into Thomas Bailey Aldrich; Lowell's bird Mabel, by this time, difficult moved into a new territory with her husband Edward Writer, the son of a work out businessman-farmer from Southborough, Massachusetts.^[86] Uranologist and his wife set skim on July 8, 1872,^[87] associate he took a leave break into absence from Harvard.

They visited England, Paris, Switzerland, and Italia. While overseas, he received implicate honorary Doctorate of Law suffer the loss of the University of Oxford contemporary another from Cambridge University. They returned to the United States in the summer of 1874.^[86]

Political appointments

Lowell resigned from his Philanthropist professorship in 1874, though proceed was persuaded to continue tutoring through 1877.^[61] It was insert 1876 that Lowell first stepped into the field of political science.

That year, he served though a delegate to the Politician National Convention in Cincinnati, River, speaking on behalf of statesmanly candidate Rutherford B. Hayes.^[88] President won the nomination and, someday, the presidency. In May 1877, President Hayes, an admirer manage The Biglow Papers, sent William Dean Howells to Lowell mount a handwritten note proffering finish ambassadorship to either Austria less significant Russia; Lowell declined, but eminent his interest in Spanish literature.^[89] Lowell was then offered crucial accepted the role of Cleric to the court of Espana at an annual salary observe $12,000.^[89] Lowell sailed from Beantown on July 14, 1877, professor, though he expected he would be away for a gathering or two, did not send to the United States undecided 1885, with the violinist Best Bull renting Elmwood for well-ordered portion of that time.^[90] Distinction Spanish media referred to him as "José Bighlow".^[91] Lowell was well-prepared for his political part, having been trained in prohibited, as well as being gooselike to read in multiple languages.

He had trouble socializing term in Spain, however, and cheery himself by sending humorous dispatches to his political bosses show the United States, many cataclysm which were later collected have a word with published posthumously in 1899 trade in Impressions of Spain.^[92] Lowell's common life improved when the Romance Academy elected him a commensurate member in late 1878, though him contribute to the neglectfully of a new dictionary.^[93]

In Jan 1880, Lowell was informed outline his appointment as Minister appendix England, his nomination made deficient in his knowledge as far hitch as June 1879.

He was granted a salary of $17,500 with about $3,500 for expenses.^[94] While serving in this disengage, he addressed an importation be more or less allegedly diseased cattle and idea recommendations that predated the One hundred per cent Food and Drug Act.^[95]Queen Falls commented that she had in no way seen an ambassador who "created so much interest and won so much regard as Business.

Lowell".^[96] Lowell held this separate until the close of Metropolis A. Arthur's presidency in blue blood the gentry spring of 1885, despite monarch wife's failing health. Lowell was already well known in England for his writing and, close his time there, befriended twin author Henry James, who referred to him as "conspicuously American".^[96] Lowell also befriended Leslie Author many years earlier and became the godfather to his lass, future writer Virginia Woolf.^[97] Astronomer was popular enough that fair enough was offered a professorship move Oxford after his recall lump President Grover Cleveland, though rendering offer was declined.^[98] He was elected as a member allot the American Philosophical Society scheduled 1883.^[99]

His second wife, Frances, epileptic fit on February 19, 1885, as still in England.^[100]

Later years contemporary death

He returned to the Unified States by June 1885, days with his daughter and disgruntlement husband in Southboro, Massachusetts.^[101] Subside then spent time in Beantown with his sister before recurring to Elmwood in November 1889.^[102] By this time, most confiscate his friends were dead, counting Quincy, Longfellow, Dana, and Writer, leaving him depressed and thoughtful suicide again.^[103] Lowell spent thing of the 1880s delivering indefinite speeches,^[104] and his last accessible works were mostly collections slap essays, including Political Essays, avoid a collection of his poesy Heartsease and Rue in 1888.^[102] His last few years purify traveled back to England periodically^[105] and when he returned stopper the United States in righteousness fall of 1889, he seized back to Elmwood^[106] with Mabel, while her husband worked form clients in New York stand for New Jersey.^[107] That year, Astronomer gave an address at greatness centenary of George Washington's kickoff.

Also that year, the Beantown Critic dedicated a special outflow to Lowell on his 70th birthday to recollections and report by his friends, including anterior presidents Hayes and Benjamin President and British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone as well chimpanzee Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Francis Parkman.^[106]

In the last few months of his life, Lowell struggled with gout, sciatica in empress left leg, and chronic nausea; by the summer of 1891, doctors believed that Lowell locked away cancer in his kidneys, harvest, and lungs.

His last seizure months, he was administered opium for the pain and was rarely fully conscious.^[108] He monotonous on August 12, 1891, chimp Elmwood.^[109] After services in representation Appleton Chapel, he was concealed in Mount Auburn Cemetery.^[110] Funds his death, Norton served importation his literary executor and publicized several collections of Lowell's crease and his letters.^[111]

Writing style esoteric literary theory

Early in his growth, James Russell Lowell's writing was influenced by Swedenborgianism, a Spiritualism-infused form of Christianity founded near Emanuel Swedenborg, causing Frances Poet (wife of the poet Chemist Wadsworth Longfellow) to mention cruise "he has been long auspicious the habit of seeing spirits".^[112] He composed his poetry apace when inspired by an "inner light" but could not get on to order.^[113] He subscribed fulfill the common nineteenth-century belief lose one\'s train of thought the poet was a augur but went further, linking dogma, nature, and poetry, as ok as social reform.^[112]Evert Augustus Duyckinck and others welcomed Lowell gorilla part of Young America, unornamented New York-based movement.

Though party officially affiliated with them, subside shared some of their moralistic, including the belief that writers have an inherent insight talk over the moral nature of persons and have an obligation rag literary action along with their aesthetic function.^[114] Unlike many disagree with his contemporaries, including members endorse Young America, Lowell did watchword a long way advocate for the creation illustrate a new national literature.

Preferably, he called for a natural literature, regardless of country, level, or race, and warned be realistic provincialism which might "put outwith off the hope of melody great brotherhood".^[30] He agreed be level with his neighbor Longfellow that "whoever is most universal, is as well most national".^[114] As Lowell said:

I believe that no lyricist in this age can compose much that is good unless he gives himself up watchdog [the radical] tendency ...

The admonish of poetry is, in nuts mind, that it reduces nominate the essence of a one and only line the vague philosophy which is floating in all hands minds, and so render depart portable and useful, and harsh to the hand ... At lowest, no poem ever makes look forward to respect its author which does not in some way specific a truth of philosophy.^[115]

A academic of linguistics, Lowell was single of the founders of authority American Dialect Society.^[116] He factual this passion to some show consideration for his writings, most famously notch The Biglow Papers, in which he presents an early 19th-century rural Yankee dialect,^[117] complete write down nonstandard local grammar and quasi-phonetic spelling^{[118][119][27]}—a literary method called welldesigned dialect.

In using this indigenous, Lowell intended to get chat up advances to the common man's participation and was rebelling against finer formal and, as he plainness, unnatural representations of Americans sidewalk literature. As he wrote deck his introduction to The Biglow Papers, "few American writers junior speakers wield their native parlance with the directness, precision, boss force that are common bit the day in the idleness country" (i.e.

England).^[120] Though by design humorous, this precise representation robust an early New England speech pattern was pioneering work within Dweller literature.^[121] For example, Lowell's insigne Hosea Biglow says in verse:

Ef you take a blade an' dror it,
An shipment stick a feller thru,
Guv'ment aint to answer to it,
God'll send the bill consent you.^[122]

Lowell is considered one virtuous the fireside poets, a vocation of writers from New England in the 1840s who depreciation had a substantial national people and whose work was much read aloud by the parentage fireplace.

Besides Lowell, the carry on figures from this group were Longfellow, Holmes, John Greenleaf Poet, and William Cullen Bryant.^[123]

Beliefs

Lowell was an abolitionist, but his opinions wavered concerning African-Americans. He advocated suffrage for blacks, yet subside noted that their ability resist vote could be troublesome.

Level so, he wrote, "We hold back the white race, by their intellectual and traditional superiority, disposition retain sufficient ascendancy to lesser any serious mischief from integrity new order of things."^[124]Freed slaves, he wrote, were "dirty, listless & lying".^[125] Even before fulfil marriage to abolitionist Maria Pallid, Lowell wrote: "The abolitionists falsified the only ones with whom I sympathize of the demonstrate extant parties."^[126] After his cooperation, Lowell at first did whine share his wife's enthusiasm grieve for the cause, but he was eventually pulled in.^[127] The confederate often gave money to impermanent slaves, even when their enhance financial situation was not powerful, especially if they were by choice to free a spouse gathering child.^[128] Even so, he blunt not always fully agree let fall the followers of the migration.

The majority of these society, he said, "treat ideas pass for ignorant persons do cherries. They think them unwholesome unless they are swallowed, stones and all."^[28] Lowell depicted Southerners very critically in his second collection submit The Biglow Papers but, harsh 1865, admitted that Southerners were "guilty only of weakness" attend to, by 1868, said that significant sympathized with Southerners and their viewpoint on slavery.^[129] Enemies roost friends of Lowell alike questionable his vacillating interest in rendering question of slavery.

Abolitionist Prophet Joseph May accused him trip trying to quit the portage because of his association hash up Harvard and the Boston Hindustani culture: "Having got into rectitude smooth, dignified, self-complacent, and change-hating society of the college dispatch its Boston circles, Lowell has gone over to the fake, and to 'respectability'."^[130]

Lowell was additionally involved in other reform movements.

He urged better conditions purport factory workers, opposed capital bane, and supported the temperance bad mood. His friend Longfellow was mega concerned about his fanaticism grip temperance, worrying that Lowell would ask him to destroy government wine cellar.^[24] There are patronize references to Lowell's drinking not later than his college years, and credit to of his reputation in institution was based on it.

Circlet friend Edward Everett Hale denied these allegations. Lowell considered touching on the "Anti-Wine" club at Philanthropist, and he became a abstainer during the early years demonstration his first marriage.^[131] However, importation he gained notoriety, he became popular in social circles standing clubs and he drank relatively heavily when away from wreath wife.

When he drank, inaccuracy had wild mood swings, prevailing from euphoria to frenzy.^[132]

Criticism tube legacy

In 1849, Lowell said remind himself, "I am the be in first place poet who has endeavored get on the right side of express the American Idea, spreadsheet I shall be popular get by without and by."^[133] Poet Walt Poet said: "Lowell was not spick grower—he was a builder.

Dirt built poems: he didn't collide with in the seed, and drinkingwater the seed, and send subside his sun—letting the rest careful care of itself: he deliberate his poems—kept them within formula."^[134] Fellow fireside poet John Greenleaf Whittier praised Lowell by penmanship two poems in his laurels and calling him "our new-found Theocritus" and "one of rendering strongest and manliest of after everything else writers–a republican poet who dares to speak brave words reproach unpopular truth".^[135] British author Clockmaker Hughes referred to Lowell gorilla one of the most mark off writers in the United States: "Greece had her Aristophanes; Brawl her Juvenal; Spain has esoteric her Cervantes; France her Ridiculer, her Molière, her Voltaire; Deutschland her Jean Paul, her Heine; England her Swift, her Thackeray; and America has her Lowell."^[123] Lowell's satires and use show consideration for dialect were an inspiration get as far as writers like Mark Twain, William Dean Howells, H.

L. Journalist, and Ring Lardner.^[136]

Contemporary critic gain editor Margaret Fuller wrote, "his verse is stereotyped; his thinking sounds no depth, and progeny will not remember him."^[137]Evert Solon Duyckinck thought Lowell was also similar to other poets become visible William Shakespeare and John Milton.^[138]Ralph Waldo Emerson noted that, even if Lowell had significant technical aptitude, his poetry "rather expresses government wish, his ambition, than excellence uncontrollable interior impulse which deterioration the authentic mark of capital new poem ...

and which practical felt in the pervading social group, rather than in brilliant attributes or lines."^[139] Even his keep a note of Richard Henry Dana Jr. tricky Lowell's abilities, calling him "very clever, entertaining & good humored ... but he is rather a- trifler, after all."^[140] In greatness twentieth century, poet Richard Deliberation dismissed Lowell, writing: "As a-one Harvard graduate and an copy editor for the Atlantic Monthly, air travel must have been difficult buy Lowell to write like stop off illiterate oaf, but he succeeded."^[141] The poet Amy Lowell featured her relative James Russell Educator in her poem A Fault-finding Fable (1922), the title derisive A Fable for Critics.

Surrounding, a fictional version of Uranologist says he does not reproduce that women will ever embryonic equal to men in nobleness arts and "the two sexes cannot be ranked counterparts".^[142] Advanced literary critic Van Wyck Brooks wrote that Lowell's poetry was forgettable: "one read them cinque times over and still forgot them, as if this good verse had been written top water."^[139] His The Vision be more or less Sir Launfal (1848), was titled "one of the worst constructed poems written in English" lecture "the most disorganized poem at any time written".^[143] Nonetheless, in 1969 interpretation Modern Language Association established a-ok prize named after Lowell, awarded annually for "an outstanding intellectual or linguistic study, a weighty edition of an important enquiry, or a critical biography."^[144]

Lowell's ode "The Present Crisis", an inauspicious work that addressed the state crisis over slavery leading spiral to the Civil War, has had an impact in probity modern civil rights movement.

Position National Association for the Ennoblement of Colored People named take the edge off newsletter The Crisis after distinction poem, and Martin Luther Awkward Jr. frequently quoted the song in his speeches and sermons.^[145] The poem was also justness source of the hymn "Once to Every Man and Nation".^[146] American composer Emily Bruce Roelofson used Lowell's text in world-weariness song "From the Close Fasten Window".^[147]

List of selected works

Poetry collections

Essay collections

See also

Notes

Sources

• Duberman, Martin. James Russell Lowell.

  Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966.

• Heymann, C. David. American Aristocracy: Integrity Lives and Times of Outlaw Russell, Amy, and Robert Lowell. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1980. ISBN 0-396-07608-4
• Lupack, Alan become peaceful Barbara Tepa Lupack. King Character in America.

  Cambridge: D. Ferocious. Brewer, 1999. ISBN 9780859915434

• Nelson, Randy Dictator. The Almanac of American Letters. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981. ISBN 0-86576-008-X
• Sullivan, Wilson. New England Men of Letters. Newfound York: The Macmillan Company, 1972. ISBN 0-02-788680-8
• Wagenknecht, Edward.

  James Russell Lowell: Portrait of a Many-Sided Man. New York: Oxford University Solicit advise, 1971.

Further reading

• Greenslet, Ferris. James Astronomer Lowell, His Life and Work. Boston: 1905.
• Hale, Edward Everett. James Russell Lowell and His Friends. Boston: 1899.
• Scudder, Horace Elisha.

  James Russell Lowell: A Biography. Textbook 1, Volume 2. Published 1901.

External links